Did you know I have a masters degree in Children’s Literature? Since this is Children’s Book Week I thought I’d share one of the papers I wrote on Literary Theory and Responding to Literature. I’m sure many of you look for different ways to get your students to respond to the literature they read. Hopefully I’ll give you some new ideas in this post.
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How we respond to literature depends greatly on the literary theory that describes our view of literature. In this post, I will start with a brief overview of some of the literary theories. I will follow that with a more detailed explanation of the theory I believe is best suited to the study of children’s literature by children along with examples of its use in a classroom setting.
Literary Theories
Literary theories are approaches to literature; ways of answering the question, “What is this piece really about?” (Culler 64). Literary theories are the way critics analyze literature. Criticism and theories have changed over time as society has changed.
Traditional Historical Criticism
Criticism in the period prior to the twentieth century has been referred to as that of traditional historical criticism. In the seventeenth century, children’s literature reflected the religious thoughts which permeated society. Tales of this time period were moralistic or evangelistic in nature (John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress) and were evaluated on that basis. The romantic period of the eighteenth century held a fascination with childhood and a desire to recapture childhood innocence. During this period John Newbery printed such books as Mother Goose and Tom Thumb’s Folio. “The desire [of the romantic period] to protect innocence or to control wayward thoughts; to balance education and enjoyment; and to reserve childlike qualities into adult life” has influenced literature since that time (Thacker and Webb 14).
The nineteenth century began with books like Little Women which were greatly influenced by romantic thought. Nineteenth-century literary theory emphasized literary and social history, the author’s biography, and the narrative message of the text (Connell 30). Children’s literature began to be seen as entertaining and subversive. Many books of this period, such as those by Mark Twain, are now read by adults because children are puzzled by them (Thacker and Webb 41).
The period of transition between the nineteenth-century view of literature and modern thought is referred to by some as fin de siecle. The United States was in transition between a rural and an urban society. Children were now living in small places and the role of women was changing. Many children’s books of this period had multiple layers (The Wind in the Willows, The Wizard of Oz, and even Winnie the Pooh) and were appealing to children and adults alike.
New Criticism and Structuralism
The New Critics and Structuralists excluded the reader and the writer from their analysis of text. The New Critics closely scrutinized the text. They insisted on removing the effect a piece had on the reader and on removing the author’s intention before objectively analyzing the text alone for meaning. Children and young adults who are exposed to this type of literature instruction may come away very frustrated if they just don’t get it.
Structuralists believed that readers can only learn what a text means by learning what a text means to others–reader have to be taught what a text means, readers cannot decide on their own (Soter 10). Structuralism might also discourage young people from reading and enjoying literature on their own because it teaches that no one is capable of deciding meaning; that meaning must be taught. The New Critics and Structuralists sought to have literary criticism be a unifying experience with everyone thinking the same way. But, since everyone is an individual with his or her own history, not everyone will think the same way.
Post Structuralism
For the Post Structuralist of the late twentieth century nothing has absolute meaning. Everything can be interpreted by numerous interpretations (Soter 11). Several different theories have evolved in the Post-Structuralist period, each having its own way of critically analyzing literature. Each may have a place in studying literature with children.
Feminist Criticism looks at literature in regards to gender relations, particularly the place women hold in society. Feminist criticism may be applied to books with a strong (or weak) female character or to a book written by a woman.
Psychoanalytical or Psychological Criticism looks at the connection between the author and the characters he has created. Psychoanalytical criticism can best be applied to maturation stories and those where the character faces internal conflict.
Marxist Criticism sees literature as being about class struggle. Tied to Marxism is New Historicism whose theorists look closely at the time in which a book was written. New Historicists look for a subversive message–a message that is more about the time in which the book was written than about the time period the book is about. New Historicist and Marxist thought could be applied to just about any piece of literature since the theory looks at the time period in which the book was written.
Rhetorical Criticism looks as how readers, authors, and text relate to each other. It is especially concerned with how the narrative effects the reader and how the author achieved those effects (Soter 59). Rhetorical criticism is best used in combination with another theory.
Reader Response Theory is the final one I will explore. In Reader Response the reader interacts with the text based on his/her experiences. Children and young people probably have the easiest time accepting this theory as there are no right or wrong answers. As Soter puts it
The primary distinctions between response and criticism have depended on the extent to which the interpretations of naïve readers have been compared to the more elaborate and technically sophisticated ones made by more mature readers. However, if we acknowledge that readers have an integral role to play in the interpretive process, we cannot ignore who those readers are and, in doing that cannot argue that one kind of reader is better than another. Readers are who they are, situated in their own histories, personalities, and proclivities. To assert that it is better to be sophisticated readers denies, for example, the age and experience of all possible readers. More significantly, unless they fit a particular model of an ideal reader, they will always be perceived as imperfect readers (105).
Reader Response Theory
Louise Rosenblatt was a woman before her time. At a time when New Criticism was widely accepted, Rosenblatt introduced her Transactional Theory otherwise known as the Reader Response Theory. While not widely accepted at first; it is viewed by many today to be the most appropriated literary theory to use with children. As C. S. Lewis said in his essay “On Juvenile Tastes” “[…] children read only to enjoy” (51). Dissecting literature for its literary elements and only doing that with the text has the tendency to drive readers away. “Literature…is written for readers. That does not mean that specialists cannot study it, but if they neglect to consider the fact that they are not the primary or intended audience, they stray from center” (Probst 7). Reader Response with its emphasis on experience is the best way to encourage the enjoyment of reading Lewis talked about.
Rosenblatt asserts that “meaning happens during the reading” (Karolides 162). She has described two types of reading, a continuum really. Efferent reading is reading for information. The other end of the continuum is aesthetic reading–the feelings surrounding reading. Readers may approach the same text in different ways at different times. If the teacher will be asking comprehension questions or the reader needs the information, the student will read efferently. If the teacher will be asking for a response or the student is reading for enjoyment, the student may read aesthetically. Students bring a history with them to the text which consists of prior literary experience, as well as family, cultural, and social experiences. All of these have an influence on how students interpret and respond to a text. Literature deals in human experiences. The experiences written about in literature are ones we share or they may be ones we can only experience vicariously through literature. Literature can enlarge students “knowledge of the world, because through literature they acquire not so much additional information as additional experience. New understanding is conveyed to them dynamically and personally. Literature provides a living through, not simply knowledge about”(emphasis in original) (Rosenblatt 173). For Rosenblatt, the aim of literature lessons is “the growth of experience rather than the acquisition of knowledge” (Pike 61).
An important thing for teachers, and all adults, to remember is that children’s literature is just that–literature for children. The real readers are children. Adults should not be telling student how to interpret the text, rather children “should be telling adults how children’s literature entertains, instructs, and reflects their lives” (May 166). Adults should listen as children respond. “When we learn to listen closely to real readers responding, we will end up discussing literature with them in literary ways and will help them become […] readers who are somehow different from when they first put their books down” (May 166).
Reader Response Environment
Lively, book-loving classrooms exist because teachers carefully planned them. There is much that a teacher can do to create a classroom environment which encourages reading and responding to reading. “The aesthetic teacher creates an environment where literature is appreciated for its artistic value: to amuse, to sadden, to thrill, to frighten, to inspire” (Zarillo, 223). Probably the most important part of this classroom environment is a classroom library stocked with appealing books, books that stimulate discussion. The classroom library space needs room “for people to talk and write and move about when they are browsing, or finding books and borrowing them or checking references” (Chambers The Reading Environment 30). Books for thematic units can also be displayed in a separate area to showcase materials that go with the unit. “Books that teachers want children to notice [can] appear cover forward on chalk troughs, window sills, cabinet tops, and tables” (Roser 5).
Teachers also need to provide a separate space for quiet reading. A space away from the noise of the classroom, a space free of distractions. The reading area should include comfortable places to sit–pillows, soft chairs, maybe even a sofa. Building a reading loft in the classroom may be an option for some
An area for displaying student responses to reading is a great addition to an inviting reading environment. Displaying student responses encourages responses by others. It may also encourage other students to read the same book. Classrooms need to be “filled with evidence of children’s productivity as readers and writers” (Sloan 25).
Other than the physical arrangement of the room, there are other things teachers can do to foster an atmosphere of reading. Daily read-aloud time when the class comes together for a joint reading experience can encourage students to respond to literature. “Reading aloud to children is essential in helping them become readers. […It is also] necessary all through the school years” (Chambers The Reading Environment 52). Or, as Sloan puts it, “the very enjoyment they experience as listeners convinces children that reading is worth doing” (Sloan 118).
Daily silent reading time encourages independent choice of books and reading for pleasure. “It also provides students with a pleasant island of solitude in the middle of a day filled with other voices” (Probst 61).
Teachers must also create an atmosphere of acceptance and safety. Students need to believe what they have to say will not be ridiculed if they are to freely respond. Children need to “trust their teacher to respect their personal responses to literature. Students must be free to share the emotions, feelings, and thoughts they experience while reading” (Zarrillo 223).
An important thing to note is teachers need to be readers. You can do all kinds of creative things in the classroom but the students will generally not become readers if there is not an adult role model. Jane Kurtz reported on the Child_Lit list serve that a “disheartening number of [her] students who [were] preparing for a teaching career […] didn’t like to read.” Maybe children literature courses should be required in all teacher preparation programs. Does this mean that Reader Response activities, which I will describe later, should take place at the college level? Teachers need to convinced of the potential to enrich the lives of their students.
Choosing Books Which Encourage Response
Of utmost importance when selecting literature is its potential to interest the students. If a book is chosen only because it fits in the curriculum, it is less likely to be read enthusiastically. “If we are to begin our teaching with students’ responses, we need literary works that provoke responses, stimulating students to think, feel, and talk” (Probst 113). One way of determining student interest is through an interest survey.
Teachers should also select literature which will encourage growth in the students. A wide variety of genres should be presented. As should literature which “inspires the children to stretch their minds and imaginations, to respond to characters with empathy and compassion, and to imagine beyond the boundaries of their own experience” (Moss and Fenster 14).
Another important consideration in choosing books is whether or not the book qualifies as the best. “If you want to change children’s bad attitudes about reading, you have to introduce them to the best stories, the ones that capture their attention and make them wonder” (Sloan 6). Brett (21), Monson (113), and Hancock (217) suggest several criteria for “the best”:
- Is the book well-written? If the book is not well-written, it probably doesn’t qualify as the best.
- Does the book have meaning? Is there a message of some sort, or is the book full of fluff?
- Does the book elicit an emotional response in you and will it in your students? If you feel no reaction, your students may not either, leaving the you without response and a dead discussion time.
- If the book is a picture book, do the illustrations elicit a response of some sort? Will young children be able to respond to the art work?
- In realistic fiction, are the characters someone your students can relate to? Or, are the characters from a different life style or culture, allowing your students to discover more about the world around them.
- For read-alouds with young children, does the book have predictable text or repetitive language? Interactive reading aloud encouraged by such books engages young children with the literature and encourages response during the reading.
- Children’s literature has broadened in recent years with regard to issues and social concerns covered and even language used. Since children may repeat behaviors or language read in books (or viewed on television for that matter), those selecting books for reader response in a classroom will need to determine if the issues or language would be appropriate as part of a class discussion.
An evaluation checklist is a helpful tool. If you’d like a pdf evaluation checklist, you can sign up here.
Ways of Encouraging Response
“No children’s literature title truly exists without the response of the reader–the lump in the throat, the grin of delight, the tear in the eye, the spontaneity of applause” (Hancock 209). Most students need help getting to that point. This section looks at how teachers can encourage responses to literature.
Read-alouds
One of the best ways to invite children to participate with books is to read them aloud. Many teachers set aside time after lunch each day for reading aloud. My daughter’s first grade teacher read as many as ten picture books a day to the class, taking a break between required subjects. He also traded off with the second grade teacher after lunch when the teachers would take turns reading a chapter book to the combined group. Today, six years later, my daughter is a reader. My son did not have the same teacher or the exposure to children’s books–reading a book, for him, is a chore.
Literature Circles
Literature Circles, Book Clubs, Reading Discussion Groups–it doesn’t matter what you call them, but it does matter what happens in them. “Literature Circles embody the idea that kids learn to read mainly be reading and to write mainly by writing and by doing them in a supportive, literate community” (Daniels 23). In order for Literature Circles to work, teachers need multiple copies each of multiple books. There needs to be choice for the students. Some teachers display books on a variety of topics and reading levels and allow students to sign up for a group. Other teachers do Literature Circles by historical time period, type of main character, theme, or some other topic. But always students have a choice. Groups should be limited to four to six students, so, at times, students may have to take their second choice; but always they have a choice. The students decide, within parameters set by the teacher, when to meet, how often to meet, and how much to read between meetings.
Some teachers use role sheets–having the students choose a role to play during independent reading (another choice). Roles can include: Connector, Questioner, Literary Luminary, Illustrator, Summarizer, Word Wizard and others. The students read the book with their role in mind. When the group meets again, each student has something for the group to discuss.
Bookmarks can also be used to help students remember what they want to discuss.
Literature Discussion
Literature Discussions can take place in small groups, as in literature groups, or in large groups, as in a whole class discussion. The teacher has a responsibility “to create a safe environment in which students feel free to take risks and articulate questions or ideas prompted by the text” (Moss Literary Discussion in the Elementary School 1).
“Children know a lot about the world in which they live. The teacher has to discover how to invite that knowledge into the discussion” (Chambers Tell Me 36). Questions are important for generating discussion. “The teacher-initiated the children to share their personal reflections to a story, to explore multiple meanings and interpretations, and to think beyond the story (Moss and Fenster 19). Teachers need to model questions when beginning in order to help the students learn which questions to ask, especially if the children have never been exposed to Reader Response. Before even starting a book, teachers can model questions which invite students to respond to the book’s cover, end papers, front matter–do they give any clues about what might be included in the book. Following the reading teachers can model questions to draw out connections to life and to other literature. During the reading of a picture book, teachers may want to model questions which tie the illustrations to the text. Questions should always be open-ended. When the teacher says “Tell me”, he or she suggests a desire for collaboration, indicating, that the teacher really does want to know what the reader thinks (Chambers Tell Me 42).
Student-initiated questions are actually responses to the literature. Teachers should aim for discussions that are student-led. The ultimate goal is student response. Teachers are basically helping students learn to respond to literature (Rosenblatt 6).
Focus Units/Literature Clusters/Theme Explorations
Many teachers like to infuse children’s literature into the broader curriculum. Focus Units, Literature Clusters, and Theme Explorations are all ways of doing this.
Focus Units, as explained by Joy Moss, are designed to integrate the Language Arts. “It is a series of literary experiences organized around a central focus (a literary theme, genre, author, topic, or narrative element or device)” (“Preparing Focus Units with Literature: Crafty Foxes and Author’s Craft” 53).
Literature Clusters are similar to Focus Units except that they are grouped by a concept or theme which could be in the language arts, but could also relate to some other area of the curriculum. “A Literature Cluster is defined as a blend of quality children’s trade books chosen from a variety of literary genres that contain narrative, expository, and poetic perspectives on a concept or theme” (Hancock 331). Literature Clusters usually use eight to twelve books.
Theme Explorations are expansions of Literature Clusters. They usually use twenty-five or more titles. “Theme explorations […] allow for a deeper examination of ideas and ideals through quality literature that encourages response and thinking at higher levels” (Hancock 341).
Focus Units, Literature Clusters, and Theme Explorations have as their goals:
- exposing children to a variety of genres
- providing a broader view of the topic
- connecting fact and fiction
- providing meaningful response-based activities
- immersion in children’s literature
- connecting literature to life
Ways of Responding to Literature
There are possibly as many ways to respond to literature as there are people on this earth. The reader is limited only by his/her imagination. “The purpose of response activities should be to get students immersed, engrossed, absorbed, and totally in literature (Macon, Bewell, Vogt 3). For more ideas of how students can respond to literature, you can take a look at this blog post.
Oral Response
Even young children can respond orally to literature. They love language and enjoy repeating fun phrases. Douglas Florian’s poem “Gater Dater” (53) is just four lines long. My five-year old repeated the last line “The gator ate ‘er” for days, just because it was fun to say. Another Douglas Florian poem “Ogre Argument” elicited a similar response. I’d hear Nathaniel repeating “We’re meaner. We’re greener” over and over again while he played (33)–repetition of language. Oral responses can also include interactive story reading with students “reading” repeated or predictable text with the teacher. Discussions, which I’ve already discussed, are also oral responses.
Musical Response
Musical response to literature could be looked at in a couple of ways.
There are various avenues by which aesthetic responses may be increased through combining music and children’s literature in the music classroom. These include exploring works which represent the same period in history, portray similar cultures, address comparable themes or topics, or simply represent a related feeling or mood (Paul 7).
This idea provides an excellent opportunity for collaboration between literature, social studies, and music teachers. Musical response can also come from the reader. Students can compose music that expresses the mood of the story or matches the author’s words as presented in a choral reading.
Drama
Children, especially young children, learn through play. Drama is a form of playful response to literature. “Thinking and talking about a book in preparation for dramatic response often brings about deeper understandings of what has been read. Playing about stories also seem to increase children’s comprehension of what they read” (Galda and West 184).
Art
Art, as music, can be included in the response process in different ways. If the book is a picture book, the teacher can guide the students in considering “how the illustrator [chose] to convey meaning through certain elements […] relating to picture design” (Kiefer 193). Art is also involved when the teacher allows the reader to choose a scene that elicits a strong emotional response and bring it to life” or otherwise use art to respond (Norwick 132).
Response Journals
Perhaps the most widely used reader response technique is the Reader Response Journal. These journals are another area where the students are given some choices. The choices mentioned below are just suggestions. Students should be allowed, to some degree to come up with their own ideas.
- Diary Entry – The student becomes a character in the story and writes a diary entry including their thoughts and feelings as if they were the character.
- Interview – The student plays a dual role here–that of interviewer and interviewee, first writing the questions and then responding to them.
- Letter – The student has several choices here. The letter could be written to a friend or the author discussing the book and sharing reaction to it. The letter could also be written to a character in the book asking questions and sharing thoughts. Another option would be to write a letter as if he or she was a character in the book, writing a letter to another character in the same book, a character in a different book or to the author.
- Poetry – Writing a poem in response to the text is another option.
- Summary and Reaction – In this option the student summarizes the story and writes his or her reaction to it.
- Character Description – In this response choice the student chooses four to six qualities of the character and lists those qualities along with references from the book which support those traits.
I have a reading log in my TpT store which allows students to let you know how they responded to the literature.
Conclusion
While thinking and learning are important aspects of reading, fiction has its value in the experience it provides the reader. The truth is, most of us read fiction to enjoy, to live through it. As teachers we need to train our students to enjoy what they read, for “children read only to enjoy” (Lewis 51). I close with a poem quoted by Iain Duncan Smith:
I do not read to think.
I do not read to learn.
I do not read to search for truth,
I know the truth.
The truth is hardly what I need,
I read to dream.
Anonymous
Works Cited
Brett, Betty Marion. “Selecting Children’s Books: The Rarest Kind of Best.” Children’s Literature in the Classroom: Weaving Charlotte’s Web Ed. Janet Hickman & Bernice E. Cullinam. Needham Heights, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers, Inc. 1989. 13-24.
Chambers, Aidan. The Reading Environment. England: Thimble Press, 1991.
Chambers, Aidan. Tell Me: Children, reading and talk. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, 1996.
Connell, Jeanne M. Aesthetic Experiences in the School Curriculum: Assessing the Value of Rosenblatt’s Transactional Theory.” Journal of Aesthetic Education Spr 2000: 27-35.
Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Daniels, Harvey. Literature Circles: Voice and Choices in Book Clubs & Reading Groups, 2nd edition. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, 2002.
Florian, Douglas. “Gater Dater.” Laugh-eteria. New York: Scholastic, 1999. p. 53.
Florian, Douglas. “Ogre Argument.” Laugh-eteria. New York: Scholastic, 1999. p. 33.
Galda, Lee and Jane West. “Exploring Literature Through Drama.” Book Talk and Beyond: Children and Teachers Respond to Literature. Eds. Nancy L Roser and Miriam G. Martinez. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1995. 183-190.
Hancock, Marjorie R. A Celebration of Literature and Response, 2nd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2004.
Hickman, Janet. “Not by Chance: Creating Classroom the Invite Response to Literature.” Book Talk and Beyond: Children and Teachers Respond to Literature. Eds. Nancy L Roser and Miriam G. Martinez. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1995. 3-9.
Karolides, Nicholas J. “Theory and Practice: An Interview with Louise M. Rosenblatt.” Language Arts 77.2 (1999): 158-171.
Kiefer, Barbara Z. “Responding to Literature as Art in Picture Books.” Book Talk and Beyond: Children and Teachers Respond to Literature. Eds. Nancy L Roser and Miriam G. Martinez. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1995. 191-200.
Klein, Ann. “Sparking a Love for Reading: Literature Circles with Intermediate Students.” Ed. Bonnie Campbell Hill, Nancy J. Johnson, and Katherine L. Schlick Noe. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers, 1995. 71-82.
Kurtz, Jane. Child Litlist serve posting 3 Jan 2005 http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~mjoseph/childlit/about.html
Lewis, C. S. “On Juvenile Tastes.” On Stories and other Essays on Literature. San Diego: Harcourt, Inc. 1982.
Macon, James, Diane Bewell, and MaryEllen Vogt. Responses to Literature: Grades K-8. N. p.:International Reading Association, 1991.
May, Jill. Children’s Literature and Critical Theory: Reading and Writing for Understanding. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Monson, Dianne. “Choosing Books for Literature Circles.” Ed. Bonnie Campbell Hill, Nancy J. Johnson, and Katherine L. Schlick Noe. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers, 1995. 113-130.
Moss, Joy F. Literary Discussion in the Elementary School. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 2002.
—. “Preparing Focus Units with Literature: Crafty Foxes and Author’s Craft.” Book Talk and Beyond: Children and Teachers Respond to Literature. Eds. Nancy L Roser and Miriam G. Martinez. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1995. 53-65.
Moss, Joy F. and Marilyn F. Fenster. From Literature to Literacy: Bridging Learning in the Library and the Primary Grade Classroom. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 2002.
Norwick, Lisa F. “Deepening Response Through the Arts.” Literature Circles and Response. Ed. Bonnie Campbell Hill, Nancy J. Johnson, and Katherine L. Schlick Noe. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers, 1995. 131-152.
Paul, Phyllis M. “Enhancing Musical Response with Children’s Litearture.” GMT Winter 2004, 6-16.
Pike, Mark A. “From Personal to Social Transaction: A Model of Aesthetic Reading in the Classroom.” Journal of Aesthetic Education 37, no. 2 (2003): 61-72.
Probst, Robert E. Response and Analysis: Teaching literature in junior and senior high school. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc., 1988.
Rosenblatt, Louise M. Literature as Exploration. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1995.
Sloan, Glenna. The Child as Critic: Developing Literacy Through Literature, K-8 4th edition. New York: Teacher College Press, 2003.
Smith, Iain Duncan. “Valuing fiction. (reading is sometimes seen as a passive non-creative activity).” Booklist, 1 March 1998: 1094+.
Soter, Anna O. Young Adult Literature & the new literary theories. New York: Teachers College Press, 1999.
Thacker, Deborah Cogan and Jean Webb. Introducing Children’s Literature: from romanticism to postmodernism. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Zarrillo, James. “Theory Becomes Practice: Aesthetic Teaching with Literature.” New Advocate, Fall 1991: 221-234.
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